Q: What was the style, form, layout, content, and purpose of the three 18th Century English designers' landscapes: Charles Bridgeman, William Kent, and 'Capability' Brown?'

In the late 17th century, there was a shift from the baroque style garden to the English style garden. There were many reasons for this shift towards the reappraisal of nature but a few are Enclosure, Grand Tour, and new farming techniques (http://www.gardenhistorymatters.com/2012/03/e-is-for-english-landscape-garden.html). There were three main designers and innovators in the 18th century English Landscape Movement including: Charles Bridgeman, William Kent, and Lancelot 'Capability' Brown. 

Charles Bridgeman (1690 - 1738)

(http://faculty.bsc.edu/jtatter/haha1.jpg)

Charles Bridgeman is credited with moving the French ha ha, which is pictured above, to England (http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095527782). The purpose of the ha ha was to give the illusion that the garden goes for miles: to let the eye wander from the estate outward without interruption. The ha ha also kept the wanted animals in the garden space, and didn't allow the unwanted animals to get in. Bridgeman was working at Stowe in 1713, however he wasn't appointed royal gardener till 1726. Bridgeman's work at Stowe hints at reducing the dominance of the central axis, and instead he emphasises the complex network of pathways that enter-twined the garden together. His work at Stowe and Rousham highlight his contribution to freeing of the English garden from the rigid geometry in the French and Dutch gardens (http://brookmans.com/environment/gobions/ch3.shtml).

William Kent (1684-1748)

(http://www.gardenhistorymatters.com/2012/03/e-is-for-english-landscape-garden.html)

William Kent (pictured above) took Bridgemen's work of 'freeing' of the English garden from the French and Dutch styles further. He de-formalised the English garden further to create ideal landscapes and picturesque views (http://www.gardenhistorymatters.com/2012/03/e-is-for-english-landscape-garden.html). Kent's motto was  “Nature abhors straight lines," which parallels with Bridgeman's views of reducing the dominance of the main axis. For example, straight paths were carefully avoided, and all water features, including fountains were tabooed. The only water that remained in the garden were lakes with irregular banks, or a river that flowed in a curved pattern in the ground. Kent's scheme of light and shade was expressed in bushes and trees; the trees were allowed to grow freely, but were planted very schematically. The lawn, which was an important part of the English garden, was required by the theorists of the early 18th century to save as a carpet contrasting in color with groups of trees and bushes (http://www.gardenvisit.com/history_theory/library_online_ebooks/ml_gothein_history_garden_art_design/english_landscape_garden_designers).

Lancelot "Capability" Brown (1716-1783)

(http://www.gardenhistorymatters.com/2012/03/e-is-for-english-landscape-garden.html)

Just like Kent and Bridgeman, Brown had a "passion for rooting out the 'unnatural and bad taste' of the old style" (http://www.gardenvisit.com/history_theory/library_online_ebooks/ml_gothein_history_garden_art_design/english_landscape_garden_designers). Brown incorporated, and was the original advocate, of Hogarths "line of beauty," which he had in almost every part of his garden. The path went around the whole park and was called "the belt," which was meant to give the estate an effect of greater size. Brown was the first to give movement to the lake, and his chief strength was his water plans. He was nicknamed "Capability" Brown because he was always talking about the “capabilities” of his garden grounds. Flowers did not have a place in this English garden; however, they took place in the background (kitchen-gardens), and had been allowed to keep to their own enclosures (http://www.gardenvisit.com/history_theory/library_online_ebooks/ml_gothein_history_garden_art_design/english_landscape_garden_designers). 


Each of the three designers had an immense influence on the English Landscape garden: from moving it from the ridged French influenced structure, to the loose English structure. 

Q: Why were Versailles Palace and Gardens built, and what role did they play during the rule of King Louis XIV?

The Palace of Versailles was built under the rule of King Louis XIV. During Louis's reign, France was the leading European power and it fought three major wars: the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg, and the War of the Spanish Succession (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France). Because of the many wars, the country of France wasn't as wealthy as it had been in the past. However, King Louis XIV, also known as the Sun God, wouldn't let the wars stop him from displaying his personal wealth. 

(http://serenitystreetnews.com/102013/pic1/Sun.gif)

Besides the want for Louis XIV to display his personal wealth, Versailles served as the home for Louis and 60,000 other people (http://www.livescience.com/38903-palace-of-versailles-facts-history.html). Among these 60,000 stood some of his troops. He always kept protection near in fear of the Fronde. The bedroom of King Louis XIV was placed at the center of the Palace and deemed the most important room in the Palace. By having his room in the center of the palace, he could be protected by the 60,000 other people living around him. Versailles served as a protective sanctuary for Louis. 

(http://www.ww1westernfront.gov.au/bellenglise/versailles/images/ver-1-tn.jpg)

It would be pointless for Louis to build Versailles without showing it off. Entertainment was a large part of the daily life of Louis (http://en.chateauversailles.fr/history/versailles-during-the-centuries/living-at-the-court/a-day-in-the-life-of-louis-xiv). The construction of Versailles brought tourism almost immediately with the first tourist guide made in the late 1600's. Anyone was allowed to visit the premise as long as the dress code was followed. Entrance into Versailles meant entry into the royal apartments. However, private doors were built into the back panelling of the apartments which allowed royalty to move about the palace while remaining hidden from public view. Tourism allowed Louis to show off his wealth to the common french citizen as well as people visiting from outside France (https://housesandbooks.wordpress.com/2013/02/02/the-grandeur-and-squalor-of-old-versailles/). 

(http://stuffpoint.com/france/image/46482/map-of-versailles-picture/)

All these functions of Versailles played a very important role in protecting Louis and showing off his wealth. Versailles helped Louis XIV in becoming the most powerful and well-known king in French history. 

Q: What types of plants and flowers were in ancient gardens? What did they symbolize?

In the Medieval period, gardens were primarily utilitarian-- growing fruits, vegetables, and plants for medicinal use. However, in the Renaissance, despite the shift of use of the garden from utilitarian to ornamental, many plants were still cultivated with a purpose, whether it was symbolic or functional (http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/i/italian-renaissance-villas-and-gardens/). In both the Medieval Period and the Renaissance, the types of ornamental flowers and plants cultivated often had a symbolic meaning behind them.

One of the most popular flower in the Renaissance and Medieval garden was the red rose. This flower was well-liked due to its pleasant aroma, aesthetics, and its notable symbolism. When Virgin Mary held the rose, it alludes to her role as the bride of Christ (http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bota/hd_bota.htm). This flower also represented the blood of martyrs, and became the Virgin Mary's special flower along with the Madonna lily. The white petals of the Madonna lily symbolised Mary's purity while the gold anthers represented the golden light of her soul (https://forum.disabroad.org/bbcswebdav/pid-197966-dt-content-rid-602993_1/courses/garden_1502213/05%20SP%2015%20The%20Mediæval%20Garden.pdf). Below are pictures of Medieval gardens-- red roses and lilies can be seen in both.

(https://forum.disabroad.org/bbcswebdav/pid-197966-dt-content-rid-602993_1/courses/garden_1502213/05%20SP%2015%20The%20Mediæval%20Garden.pdf)

(https://forum.disabroad.org/bbcswebdav/pid-197966-dt-content-rid-602993_1/courses/garden_1502213/05%20SP%2015%20The%20Mediæval%20Garden.pdf)

More religious symbolism comes from the beech tree and laurel tree. The breech tree derives from the Greek word meaning "to eat" because its acorns provided sustenance for ascetics, so the breech tree reminds the viewer of Christ's abstinence. The laurel was an attribute of the poet Apollo because he pursued Daphne until she metamorphosed into a laurel tree. Because of this, the laurel was the crown of poets. The laurel was also consecrated to the Vestal Virgins because of its evergreen properties. It was purity uncorrupted by decay. Laurel trees show up in religious paintings and gardens because of its meaning of chastity and immortality (http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bota/hd_bota.htm). The Renaissance Gardens of the Palazzo Piccolomini are shown below with many laurel trees planted.  

(http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/15/Piccolomini_Gardens.JPG)

A single plant or flower often had many meanings towards it because of the wealth and variety of source materials. A perfect example of a flower with multiple meanings is the carnation. The Greek name for the carnation means "flower of God," so the carnation usually appears in paintings of the Madonna and Child as seen below. 

(http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Leonardo_da_Vinci_Madonna_of_the_Carnation.jpg)

In particular, in the Northern Italian Renaissance paintings, a vase of carnations represented divine love. Similarly, in the Low Countries, a bride usually carried a pink carnation on her wedding day symbolising earthly love and marriage (http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bota/hd_bota.htm).

 Roses, lilies, laurel trees, beech trees, and carnations are a few examples of many flowers and trees with symbolism behind them planted in Renaissance and Medieval gardens. When studying ancient gardens, it is important to note the plants and flowers that were present because that could give rise to the meaning behind the garden (religious, herbal...etc).