Which expression of garden style resonated most strongly with you personally? Why?

My favorite expression of garden style is the Renaissance garden. I have always been fascinated with the Renaissance period, so learning about the style of the garden gave me a new dimension of knowledge about the Renaissance times. The way the garden evolved right alongside the art forms and sciences is fascinating.

The Renaissance was all about the new relationship between the human and divine with the top being God. God created man and nature and saw the world in terms of its usefulness. For example, plants and animals provided useful things like clothing, food, and medicine. At the same time, nature was part of the cosmos , and so to understand Nature was to understand God further. In the garden, art and nature were combined as a whole which made rise to the Renaissance garden. 

This garden was formal and extravagant. Evolving from the medieval times, this garden was more expansive, worldly, and symmetrical, containing features such as fountains, statues, waterworks, and rare plants. I believe this is the most impressive garden style because it evolved immensely from the past, and so quickly. The medieval gardens that came before the Renaissance gardens were small, enclosed, and put where they could squeeze in space. However, in the Renaissance period, they were a form of art and expression of wealth. Along with being an expression of wealth, the Renaissance gardens were also used for relaxation and entertainment. 

One of the main features of a Renaissance garden is a main axis, which is a line running down the center of the garden with symmetry on both sides. Another feature of a Renaissance garden is terracing. The terracing allowed an individual stand at the highest point (usually the back of the estate) and see the entirety of the garden ahead. As mentioned above, water features were an intrinsic part of Renaissance gardens and were large and very extravagant. They were also expensive to fuel and upkeep, so a large water feature showed wealth.

The quick and expansive evolution from the medieval garden to the renaissance garden, and the way the renaissance garden evolved alongside the art forms and sciences, are what makes the renaissance garden so fascinating to me

References:
http://www.gardenhistorymatters.com/2012/03/italian-renaissance-garden.html
http://www.egeskov.dk/en/renaissance-garden
https://forum.disabroad.org/bbcswebdav/pid-199209-dt-content-rid-608142_1/courses/garden_1502213/08%20SP%2015%20Italian%20Renaissance%20Garden%20-%20Villa%20d%27Este.pdf
http://fhswolvesden.wikispaces.com/file/view/renaissance_history_the-birth-of-venus.jpg/249086849/370x229/renaissance_history_the-birth-of-venus.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Villa_d_Este1.jpg
http://www.poderesantapia.com/gardens/italianrenaissancegarden.htm
https://plus.google.com/102659917303976812530/posts/AeuqbmQ9wbz

Q: What was the form, contents, and character of the Arts and Crafts garden created by Gertrude Jekyll and Edwin Lutyens?

The Arts and Crafts movement flourished between the late 19th century to early 20th century, following the highly formalized Victorian Garden style.  The Arts and Crafts era arouse from a debate about whether gardens should remain highly formalized, or develop a more informal style. The industrial revolution led to overproduction and loss of traditional craftsmanship. The Arts and Crafts garden aimed to bring back the traditional craftsmanship, while fusing the formal and informal styles. Gertrude Jekyll was one of the main forces behind the Arts and Crafts gardens. Joining forces with the renowned architect Sir Edwin Lutyens, Jekyll innovated the concept of the flow and design of the garden integrating seamlessly with the design of the home, creating an overall sense of complimentary artistic vision.The partnership of Jekyll and Lutyens created masterpieces that are still alive today.

Gertrude Jekyll (1843 - 1932) was England’s most renowned 20th century landscape designer, creating well over 400 gardens in the United Kingdom, Europe and America. Her gardens were known to have an effortless flare, with the highly calculated details as hidden as possible. For example, she perfected one of the main features in an Arts and Crafts garden, the herbaceous border. Jekyll's most famous herbaceous border was Munstead Wood, which is pictured below.

Jekyll used color theory to strategically plant each type and color of plant. She had to consider many different obstacles when planning such as flowering time, plant height, and plant color. 

Jekyll and Lutyens gardens were geometrical, and filled with disciplined planting. Their gardens were often enclosed by hedges, vistas, pergolas, steps, and pools. The rills, arches, and quiet courts were all strategically filled with plants.They were the best at what they did and reflected the genius of the land as well as the character of the owners in their work.

Sources:
http://www.countrylifeimages.co.uk/ResizedImages/VeryLarge/884795.jpg
http://si.wsj.net/public/resources/images/EW-AS617_LUTYEN_P_20150113112515.jpg
https://c2.staticflickr.com/8/7196/6782550420_a81b715ec9.jpg
http://www.oldhouseweb.com/gardening/gertrude-jekyll-gardener-extraordinaire.shtml
http://thegallopinggardener.blogspot.dk/2011/01/great-garden-designers-gertrude-jekyll.html
http://www.gardenhistorymatters.com/2012/09/h-is-for-herbaceous-border.html
http://www.exploringsurreyspast.org.uk/themes/people/gardeners/gertrude_jekyll/
https://forum.disabroad.org/bbcswebdav/pid-202058-dt-content-rid-621743_1/courses/garden_1502213/19%2015%20SP%20Arts%20%26%20Crafts%20.pdf

Q: What was the form, content and style of the Victorian villa garden? Include in your answer the inspirations for this garden type.

A new idea in the Victorian villa garden was the idea of Art and Nature coexisting, as apposed to the struggle in previous gardens with Art versus Nature. During the 19th century, most older parks were embellished by terraces and other formal features. In Victorian gardens, new estates were designed on a similar pattern with geometry within the balustrade, and serpentine curves. The gardener not only inherited the Capability Brown park but also the remains of formal gardens. What grew from this eventually became the most influential of all Victorian gardens, Chatsworth. In the Chatsworth gardens, the ideas of formal and informal gardens come together as one (Bisgrove, 1990). 

(http://shoestringlondon.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Chatsworth-garden.jpg)

Above, the strategic arrangement of shrubs shines as a formal element of the Chatsworth garden. The Victorian garden was all about showing wealth, taste, education, fashion, and possessions. The garden was essentially a 'grand status symbol.' One feature of a Victorian garden was a conservatory/glasshouse. Once glasshouses were popular, many exotic plants that needed warm weather could now grow in colder places, which gave a rise to necessity for foreign plants everywhere. Another feature of a formal Victorian garden was the emperor fountain, which is pictured below (https://forum.disabroad.org/bbcswebdav/pid-201567-dt-content-rid-619820_1/courses/garden_1502213/17%20Case%20Study%20-%20Biddulph%20%26%20Chatsworth.pdf).

(http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Chatsworth_South_Front.jpg)

This is the king of water features, and the ultimate status symbol. At the time, it was a record-breaking, gravity-fed fountain. On record, it was able to reach the height of three hundred feet (http://www.chatsworth.org/attractions-and-events/garden/about-the-garden/paxton's-garden/emperor-fountain).

(http://ml.dcs.shef.ac.uk/prib2009/pages/sheffield.html)

Above is an example of how informal portions of the Chatsworth garden were. Many scattered trees can be found with a curved river which all hint towards informality. Another feature of an informal Victorian garden was rockwork (https://forum.disabroad.org/bbcswebdav/pid-201567-dt-content-rid-619820_1/courses/garden_1502213/17%20Case%20Study%20-%20Biddulph%20%26%20Chatsworth.pdf). Rockwork was essentially arranging different large rocks into something artistic: something that nature could have formed, but it was man made. The beauty of many informal gardens is the fact that they are tailored to look untouched by man. 

The Victorian villa garden showed growth and evolution from the past with the idea of Art and Nature acting together to form something greater. 

Citations

Bisgrove, Richard. The National Trust Book of the English Garden. London: Viking, 1990. 177. Print.

Q: Describe the character and uses of the different urban greenspaces created in Copenhagen the 19th century and explored on our Field Study, and the ways in which these parks are relevant and beneficial to 21st century urban living.

Urban green-space promotes physical activity and public health (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204614000310). In Denmark, 3% of people claim they lack green-space, compared to the average of 12% across European countries (http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/denmark/). Urban green space definitely contributes to Denmark being one of the happiest and healthiest countries in the world. The three urban green spaces I will be talking about are the Kings Garden (Rosenborg), the Botanical Garden/Greenhouse, and Orstedsparken. 

Kings Garden (Rosenborg)

     The kings garden was originally made in the 1600's, but it was redesigned in the 19th century. Rosenborg is the most visited park in copenhagen and is Denmarks oldest royal garden (http://www.visitcopenhagen.com/copenhagen/kings-garden-gdk420899). This garden is home to many famous buildings and statues. The garden plan from 1669 showed the garden contained a maze, which is very common for baroque gardens. From about 1710, Rosenborg Castle was largely abandoned by the royal family and the gardens were opened to the public. Johan Cornelius Krieger was hired head gardner of the Orangery in 1711, and in 1721 he redesigned the garden in the Baroque style (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosenborg_Castle_Gardens). 

(http://www.visitcopenhagen.com/copenhagen/kings-garden-gdk420899)

In the 17th century Rosengorg Castle was established as the private grounds of King Christian IV. As mentioned above, soon after it was abandoned and now it remains open to the public. Many events go on at the garden today including a puppet show for children in midsummer. The lawns are crowded with sun bathers on a warm day. Also, the Copenhagen Jazz Festival is held here (http://www.visitcopenhagen.com/copenhagen/kings-garden-gdk420899). 

Botanical Garden/Greenhouse 

(http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Copenhagen_Botanical_Garden.jpg)

The botanical garden in Copenhagen is the largest collection of living plants and the only gene bank for wild plants. The botanical gardens were founded in 1872, but has been renovated with modern techniques in the 1980's. It is 94 meters long and divided into five departments, which makes about 12 greenhouses in total. Each greenhouse iso kept at a unique temperature depending on which plants are inside it (http://botanik.snm.ku.dk/english/). 

This gardens purpose was to maintain and develop scientific collections of living and preserved plants and fungi, and made them available for research. This garden is affiliated to the largest Danish herbaria collection with fungi and plants from all over the world. When it was built it had the same purpose as today. Today it is open to the public to explore and learn about many exotic plants. (http://botanik.snm.ku.dk/english/)

Orstedsparken 

(http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Koebenhavn_Oerstedsparken_2009_ubt.JPG)

Orstedsparken is a park in Copenhagen built by gardener and landscape architect, Henrick August Flindt in 1876. This park included Copenhagen's first public playground. This park covers 6.5 ha and has seven enterences distributed on all sides. This park retains much of its original character it was built with in 1876. This park has a number of unique varieties of trees including trees from China and USA (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ørstedsparken). 

Today, this park serves as a pleasure ground for many of the residents close by. During warmer temperatures, this park is crowded with runners and sunbathers. Many people enjoy picnicking at this spot as well. Urban green spaces like this are essential in having a healthy and active community. 

_______

For the most part, many parks in Copenhagen in the 19th century are used in the same ways as today in shaping the Danish community to become more active and healthy.

Q: What was the style, form, layout, content, and purpose of the three 18th Century English designers' landscapes: Charles Bridgeman, William Kent, and 'Capability' Brown?'

In the late 17th century, there was a shift from the baroque style garden to the English style garden. There were many reasons for this shift towards the reappraisal of nature but a few are Enclosure, Grand Tour, and new farming techniques (http://www.gardenhistorymatters.com/2012/03/e-is-for-english-landscape-garden.html). There were three main designers and innovators in the 18th century English Landscape Movement including: Charles Bridgeman, William Kent, and Lancelot 'Capability' Brown. 

Charles Bridgeman (1690 - 1738)

(http://faculty.bsc.edu/jtatter/haha1.jpg)

Charles Bridgeman is credited with moving the French ha ha, which is pictured above, to England (http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095527782). The purpose of the ha ha was to give the illusion that the garden goes for miles: to let the eye wander from the estate outward without interruption. The ha ha also kept the wanted animals in the garden space, and didn't allow the unwanted animals to get in. Bridgeman was working at Stowe in 1713, however he wasn't appointed royal gardener till 1726. Bridgeman's work at Stowe hints at reducing the dominance of the central axis, and instead he emphasises the complex network of pathways that enter-twined the garden together. His work at Stowe and Rousham highlight his contribution to freeing of the English garden from the rigid geometry in the French and Dutch gardens (http://brookmans.com/environment/gobions/ch3.shtml).

William Kent (1684-1748)

(http://www.gardenhistorymatters.com/2012/03/e-is-for-english-landscape-garden.html)

William Kent (pictured above) took Bridgemen's work of 'freeing' of the English garden from the French and Dutch styles further. He de-formalised the English garden further to create ideal landscapes and picturesque views (http://www.gardenhistorymatters.com/2012/03/e-is-for-english-landscape-garden.html). Kent's motto was  “Nature abhors straight lines," which parallels with Bridgeman's views of reducing the dominance of the main axis. For example, straight paths were carefully avoided, and all water features, including fountains were tabooed. The only water that remained in the garden were lakes with irregular banks, or a river that flowed in a curved pattern in the ground. Kent's scheme of light and shade was expressed in bushes and trees; the trees were allowed to grow freely, but were planted very schematically. The lawn, which was an important part of the English garden, was required by the theorists of the early 18th century to save as a carpet contrasting in color with groups of trees and bushes (http://www.gardenvisit.com/history_theory/library_online_ebooks/ml_gothein_history_garden_art_design/english_landscape_garden_designers).

Lancelot "Capability" Brown (1716-1783)

(http://www.gardenhistorymatters.com/2012/03/e-is-for-english-landscape-garden.html)

Just like Kent and Bridgeman, Brown had a "passion for rooting out the 'unnatural and bad taste' of the old style" (http://www.gardenvisit.com/history_theory/library_online_ebooks/ml_gothein_history_garden_art_design/english_landscape_garden_designers). Brown incorporated, and was the original advocate, of Hogarths "line of beauty," which he had in almost every part of his garden. The path went around the whole park and was called "the belt," which was meant to give the estate an effect of greater size. Brown was the first to give movement to the lake, and his chief strength was his water plans. He was nicknamed "Capability" Brown because he was always talking about the “capabilities” of his garden grounds. Flowers did not have a place in this English garden; however, they took place in the background (kitchen-gardens), and had been allowed to keep to their own enclosures (http://www.gardenvisit.com/history_theory/library_online_ebooks/ml_gothein_history_garden_art_design/english_landscape_garden_designers). 


Each of the three designers had an immense influence on the English Landscape garden: from moving it from the ridged French influenced structure, to the loose English structure. 

Q: Why were Versailles Palace and Gardens built, and what role did they play during the rule of King Louis XIV?

The Palace of Versailles was built under the rule of King Louis XIV. During Louis's reign, France was the leading European power and it fought three major wars: the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg, and the War of the Spanish Succession (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France). Because of the many wars, the country of France wasn't as wealthy as it had been in the past. However, King Louis XIV, also known as the Sun God, wouldn't let the wars stop him from displaying his personal wealth. 

(http://serenitystreetnews.com/102013/pic1/Sun.gif)

Besides the want for Louis XIV to display his personal wealth, Versailles served as the home for Louis and 60,000 other people (http://www.livescience.com/38903-palace-of-versailles-facts-history.html). Among these 60,000 stood some of his troops. He always kept protection near in fear of the Fronde. The bedroom of King Louis XIV was placed at the center of the Palace and deemed the most important room in the Palace. By having his room in the center of the palace, he could be protected by the 60,000 other people living around him. Versailles served as a protective sanctuary for Louis. 

(http://www.ww1westernfront.gov.au/bellenglise/versailles/images/ver-1-tn.jpg)

It would be pointless for Louis to build Versailles without showing it off. Entertainment was a large part of the daily life of Louis (http://en.chateauversailles.fr/history/versailles-during-the-centuries/living-at-the-court/a-day-in-the-life-of-louis-xiv). The construction of Versailles brought tourism almost immediately with the first tourist guide made in the late 1600's. Anyone was allowed to visit the premise as long as the dress code was followed. Entrance into Versailles meant entry into the royal apartments. However, private doors were built into the back panelling of the apartments which allowed royalty to move about the palace while remaining hidden from public view. Tourism allowed Louis to show off his wealth to the common french citizen as well as people visiting from outside France (https://housesandbooks.wordpress.com/2013/02/02/the-grandeur-and-squalor-of-old-versailles/). 

(http://stuffpoint.com/france/image/46482/map-of-versailles-picture/)

All these functions of Versailles played a very important role in protecting Louis and showing off his wealth. Versailles helped Louis XIV in becoming the most powerful and well-known king in French history. 

Q: What types of plants and flowers were in ancient gardens? What did they symbolize?

In the Medieval period, gardens were primarily utilitarian-- growing fruits, vegetables, and plants for medicinal use. However, in the Renaissance, despite the shift of use of the garden from utilitarian to ornamental, many plants were still cultivated with a purpose, whether it was symbolic or functional (http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/i/italian-renaissance-villas-and-gardens/). In both the Medieval Period and the Renaissance, the types of ornamental flowers and plants cultivated often had a symbolic meaning behind them.

One of the most popular flower in the Renaissance and Medieval garden was the red rose. This flower was well-liked due to its pleasant aroma, aesthetics, and its notable symbolism. When Virgin Mary held the rose, it alludes to her role as the bride of Christ (http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bota/hd_bota.htm). This flower also represented the blood of martyrs, and became the Virgin Mary's special flower along with the Madonna lily. The white petals of the Madonna lily symbolised Mary's purity while the gold anthers represented the golden light of her soul (https://forum.disabroad.org/bbcswebdav/pid-197966-dt-content-rid-602993_1/courses/garden_1502213/05%20SP%2015%20The%20Mediæval%20Garden.pdf). Below are pictures of Medieval gardens-- red roses and lilies can be seen in both.

(https://forum.disabroad.org/bbcswebdav/pid-197966-dt-content-rid-602993_1/courses/garden_1502213/05%20SP%2015%20The%20Mediæval%20Garden.pdf)

(https://forum.disabroad.org/bbcswebdav/pid-197966-dt-content-rid-602993_1/courses/garden_1502213/05%20SP%2015%20The%20Mediæval%20Garden.pdf)

More religious symbolism comes from the beech tree and laurel tree. The breech tree derives from the Greek word meaning "to eat" because its acorns provided sustenance for ascetics, so the breech tree reminds the viewer of Christ's abstinence. The laurel was an attribute of the poet Apollo because he pursued Daphne until she metamorphosed into a laurel tree. Because of this, the laurel was the crown of poets. The laurel was also consecrated to the Vestal Virgins because of its evergreen properties. It was purity uncorrupted by decay. Laurel trees show up in religious paintings and gardens because of its meaning of chastity and immortality (http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bota/hd_bota.htm). The Renaissance Gardens of the Palazzo Piccolomini are shown below with many laurel trees planted.  

(http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/15/Piccolomini_Gardens.JPG)

A single plant or flower often had many meanings towards it because of the wealth and variety of source materials. A perfect example of a flower with multiple meanings is the carnation. The Greek name for the carnation means "flower of God," so the carnation usually appears in paintings of the Madonna and Child as seen below. 

(http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Leonardo_da_Vinci_Madonna_of_the_Carnation.jpg)

In particular, in the Northern Italian Renaissance paintings, a vase of carnations represented divine love. Similarly, in the Low Countries, a bride usually carried a pink carnation on her wedding day symbolising earthly love and marriage (http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bota/hd_bota.htm).

 Roses, lilies, laurel trees, beech trees, and carnations are a few examples of many flowers and trees with symbolism behind them planted in Renaissance and Medieval gardens. When studying ancient gardens, it is important to note the plants and flowers that were present because that could give rise to the meaning behind the garden (religious, herbal...etc).